Aquarium of Vulcan: Serpentine symbolism on Roman coinage

Ancient Greek and Roman coinage depicting snakes reveals the flexible and syncretic nature of symbols. Evidence of Roman adoption of the Greek god of medicine Asclepius, successive Emperors issuing Salus coins, fraudulent snake cults, and official State Christianity inverting the snake symbolism to Judaic sources, can all be seen on Greco-Roman coins.

Greek World

Snakes played a central part in the ancient Greek mysteries of Dionysus in religious ritual and in their role as protectors of the vine (by eating mice and other consumers of grapes). The worship of Dionysus, the god of wine was known as Bacchus and associated with Bacchanalian revelries to the Romans. Because snakes are cold-blooded and need to absorb heat, it was believed they could absorb fevers and infections when in contact with the sick. Furthermore, their ability to cast off their skin became symbolically associated with rejuvenation, health and rebirth.

Snakes were closely associated in the ancient world with Asclepius, the Greek god of medicine. One of the most important gods in the Greek pantheon as the god of medicine and healing, he was honoured by many cities in the ancient world, in particular at Pergamum (in North-West Turkey) which had a temple dedicated to him. Founded in the 4th century BCE, the Asklepion at Pergamum functioned as a medical centre which combined religious ceremonies with natural remedies, diet, and dream analysis. Early in its history Pergamum issued small bronze coins with the head of Asclepius on their obverse and his snake-entwined caduceus on their reverse. [1]

Above - Laureate bearded head of Asclepius with reverse of a serpent-entwined staff. Issued in Pergamon, Mysia, ca 200-100 BCE

Below- The snake-entwined Staff of Asclepius representing Medical authority survives to the present-day with the World Health Organization logo.

The ancient city of Pergamum in north-west Turkey, famed for its invention of parchment, also minted coinage during the earlier part of the 2nd century BCE known as Cistophorus. They depict a cista mystica, a wicker basket or casket which housed a sacred temple snake. Cistophorus coins continued to be issued even after Pergamum came under Roman control in 133 BCE.

Roman World

Asclepius, originally a Greek god of medicine was first worshipped by the Romans when, during a plague he was believed to have visited Rome in the form of a snake. A cistophorus coin issued during the late Roman Republic is a great example of how the Roman world adopted and absorbed the art, culture and spirituality of ancient Greece.

Minted at Epheus the double portrait of Mark Antony and Octavia (photo above) dates from circa 39 BCE. The reverse of this 'cistophoric tetradrahm' depicts a cista mystica, or sacred casket. This object was used in the worship of Dionysus, god of wine. The casket contained a snake, which was released at the climax of the religious ceremony.

During the Roman Imperial era a wide variety of cults flourished, the primary of which included the Persian god Mithras, the Egyptian goddess Isis and the Greek gods Cybele, Dionysus and Orpheus, each of whom was associated with secret rituals and initiations. There also evolved during the Roman era various syncretic forms of early Christianity, among which were the snake-worshipping sect known as the Ophites who believed snakes were a benevolent, healing creatures and that the Biblical serpent brought gnosis (divine, secret knowledge) to humanity through its tempting of Adam and Eve to eat from the tree of knowledge.

The Romans views snakes were viewed as benevolent domestic animals, protective of family health as well as representing divine mystery and otherworldly wisdom. A large snake was often depicted as a decoration of the domestic "lararium", a sacred shrine in Roman homes which was dedicated to household guardian spirits and domestic deities. Such shrines were central to daily household worship and were designed for the protection, prosperity, and fertility of the family. Snakes were viewed as protectors of a household and also symbolic of the bond with ancestors. They were depicted on simple wall niches or elaborate cupboards, usually located in the dining area or atriums of dwellings.

Above - A Roman lararium fresco, preserved from ruins in Pompeii.

Below - Statue of Salus with snake. Roman copy of a Greek original 2nd century CE.

Chronological examples of Salus coins

One of the most enduring symbols issued by Roman Emperors in successive dynasties was coinage depicting Salus, the daughter of Asclepius. Coins showing Salus busy feeding and caring for her father's sacred snake are frequently found on Roman coins of the 2nd and 3rd centuries of the Common Era. She was worshipped as responsible for the welfare, not only of individuals, but also for families. Her Greek name 'Hygeia' and Roman name of 'Salus' is at the root of words such as 'hygiene,' 'salve' and 'salubrious,' as well as 'salute' and 'safe'.

Early examples of Salus coins include those by the Emperors Nero and Vespasian.

Above -Silver Denarius Obverse, Nero with a heavy jowl, testimony to the artistic realism of numismatic portraiture under his rule from 54-68 CE. Nero's death precipitated the Civil war power struggle of 69 CE, the year of 4 Emperors.

Emperor Vespasian ruled from 69- 79 CE. His issuing of a Salus coin may well have been to emphasis the stability of Roman rule, with a near exact reproduction of Nero's seated Salus. Vespasian was easily the wittiest of all Roman Emperors.

Above - Obverse Emperor Hadrian (117-38 CE) Reverse- Salus holding a patera (a shallow dish used for religious rituals) feeding a snake.

The Roman Emperor Hadrian ruled from 138-61 CE. He promoted Salus on his coinage for the restoration of his personal health. It was believed that the wellbeing of the Roman Emperor and the welfare of the Roman people were closely inter-connected. Hadrian was cosmopolitan and Hellenic in outlook. He restored the temple dedicated to Asclepius at Epidaurus in 124 CE and introduced a range of reforms. Influenced by the cult of Asclepius at Pergamum which he was closely involved with he reorganised the Asclepieia Games, moving their date in order that they would not clash with other festival games in Greece.

Hadrian's adopted son and successor, Antonius Pius (138-61 CE) issued silver Denarius 'Salus' coins. (Above)

Remembering that many Roman coins are little more than 2 centimetres in diameter, the skill of the die engraver can be seen in its obverse portraiture and reverse which depicts a shapely legged Salus.

Antonius Pius also issued a set of 12 coins each depicting a zodiac sign and it's ruling planetary 'deity'. A 13th coin in the series has a reverse with the entire zodiac.

Empress Faustina the Younger (161-76 CE) daughter of Antonius Pius, issued a gold aureus coin with a portrait of herself on its obverse and a reverse with Salus enthroned holding patera and feeding a snake. (above).

The Stoic philosopher Emperor Marcus Aurelius (121 CE -180 CE) was the last of the '5 Good Emperors'. He issued a gold aureus Salus coin (above) in which Salus is seen standing feeding a serpent from a patera dish.

The Roman Emperor Commodus (ruled 177-192 CE) also issued 'Salus' coinage, as did his wife Empress Crispina (b. 164- d. 193 CE ruled 178-193 CE (below)

Depictions of Salus become increasingly prominent on Roman coins during the Severean Dynasty (193-215 CE). Emperor Septimius Severus married Julia Domna (c. 160 – 217 AD) on the strength and compatibility of her astrological birth-chart and issued a set of 12 coins each representing one of the twelve zodiac signs. He died at York in England in 211 CE. His wife Julia Domna was a highly influential Syrian and a High priestess. She was a patron of the arts, a highly efficient administrator and the mother of the Emperors Caracalla and Geta. Progressive-minded matriarchs such as Julia Domna, were mindful of public health and used Salus coins to promote Civic Sanitation and Health. The cramped living conditions of what was the world's first city with a population of over 100,000 people necessitated an awareness of sanitary living.

Septimius Severus (obverse) and Salus enthroned (reverse)

Above - Silver Denarius obverse Julia Domna, wife of Septimius Severus, Reverse Salus

Above- The short-lived and notorious Emperor Caracalla (188-217 CE) issued a 'cista mystica' depicting a snake emerging from its basket. The opening of the casket in secret Ophic mystery religions was a crucial, often shocking moment for initiates. Digressing slightly, an approximate psychological equivalent to the suspense and mystery of what's inside the box is the sudden surprise effected from the children's toy known as a Jack-in-the-box. A contemporany equivalent of an unknown entity released from a box could well be Artificial Intelligence technology, which once released, not unlike a snake in a casket, evokes deep, unknown spiritual and psychological effects and resultants.

Above - Victorian era Jack-in-the-box

Dutch 1950s Jack-in-the-box

Above - Silver Denarius issued by the notorious Elgabalus b. 203 CE who ruled 218-222 CE. He was assassinated with his mother Julia Soaemias in 222 CE

Alexander Severus (b. 208 d. 235 CE) was the last ruler of the Severan dynasty. Often portrayed on coins with his mother Julia Mamea b. 180 - 235 CE. She witnessed the disastrous reigns of Emperors Elgabalus and Caracalla and powerfully controlled and her son; their joint rule was from 222-235 CE when both were assassinated by military leaders.

Above -Silver Denarius Obverse Macrinus (217-218 CE) Reverse Salus enthroned feeding serpent.

Gordian III (ruled 238-244 CE) issued a coin (above) which unusually depicts both the god Asclepius and his daughter, Salus together.

Above -Silver Denarius issued by Philip the Arab ruled 244 - 249 CE.

Above - Emperor Gallenius (ruled 253-268 CE) Salus standing and feeding serpent reverse.

Below - Empress Salonina. Her fate remains unknown after Gallenius was murdered, most likely she was executed by order of the Roman Senate.

Above- Born around 200 CE the Emperor Tacitus ruled from September 275 CE until his death in June 276 CE. Tacitus's issuing of a 'Salus' coin was the culmination of a snake and Salus appearing on Roman coins for over two centuries.

The longevity of Salus coins as one of the most frequently reproduced themes on Roman coin reverses may be viewed as an effective way of saying 'Gesundheit' or 'Bless you' to each who handled an Imperial coin throughout the Empire, linking the individual to the Emperor in shared salutation of good health. Salus coins bearing the motif of health and wellness may be seen as a deliberate attempt to impart a collective benediction, bridging the individual to Imperial authority through a shared aspiration for good health.

The snake cult of Glycon

Few details of the rites and ceremonies associated with ancient mystery religions are known today. The wall frescoes at the Villa of Mysteries at Herculaem are believed to show aspects of Dionysian worship. The Roman author Apuleius (124 - circa 170 CE) described in detail an initiation ceremony of the cult of Isis in his novel Metamorphoses, also known as 'The Golden Ass'.

One of the most detailed accounts of a fraudulent cult in the ancient world was written by Lucian of Samothrace (120-200 CE). Like all good satirists the Syrian author was keen to debunk the dishonesty of those who exploit gullibility in order to make easy money. In Lucian's story about the tricks of the impostor known as Alexander of Abonutichus, he informs us -

'There is here a breed of large snakes, so tame and gentle that women make pets of them, children take them to bed, they will let you tread on them, have no objection to being squeezed, and will draw milk from the breast like infants'. [2]

The fraudulent trickster Alexander realised -

'that human life is under the absolute dominion of two mighty principles, fear and hope, and that anyone who can make these serve his ends may be sure of a rapid fortune'. [3]

Lucian continues the action of his tale thus -

'Alexander buried some brazen tablets, on which was the statement that very shortly Asclepius, with his father Apollo, would pay a visit to Pontus, and take up his abode at Abonutichus..... He went one night to the temple foundations, still in process of digging, and with standing water in them which had collected from the rainfall or otherwise; he deposited a goose egg, into which, after blowing it, he had inserted some new-born reptile. [4]

'Alexander took into his bosom our Asclepius of Pella (a very fine and large one, as I observed), wound its body round his neck, and let its tail hang down; there was enough of this not only to fill his lap, but to trail on the ground also; the patient creature's head he kept hidden in his armpit, showing the linen head on one side of his beard exactly as if it belonged to the visible body. Picture to yourself a little chamber into which no very brilliant light was admitted, with a crowd of people from all quarters, excited, carefully worked up, all a-flutter with expectation'.[5]

Lucian continues - 'I have mentioned that the snake was often exhibited by request; he was not completely visible, but the tail and body were exposed, while the head was concealed under the prophet's dress. By way of impressing the people still more, he announced that he would induce the God to speak, and give his responses without an intermediary. His simple device to this end was a tube of cranes' windpipes, which he passed, with due regard to its matching, through the artificial head, and, having an assistant speaking into the end outside, whose voice issued through the linen Asclepius, thus answered questions. [6]

'Alexander contrived various methods of undoing the seals, read the questions, answered them as seemed good, and then folded, sealed, and returned them, to the great astonishment of the recipients.

'In Rome itself he established an intelligence bureau well manned with his accomplices. They sent him people's characters, forecasts of their questions, and hints of their ambitions, so that he had his answers ready before the messengers reached him'. [7]

'He sent an oracle just at the crisis of the German war, when M. Aurelius was on the point of engaging the Marcomanni and Quadi. The oracle required that two lions should be flung alive into the Danube, with quantities of sacred herbs and magnificent sacrifices'. [8]

'Among instances of Alexander's presumption, a high place must be given to his petition to the Emperor: the name of Abonutichus was to be changed to Ionopolis; and a new coin was to be struck, with a representation on the obverse of Glycon, and, on the reverse, Alexander bearing the garlands proper to his paternal grandfather Asclepius'. [9]

The snake worship cult of Glycon flourished during the late 2nd and 3rd centuries CE. Glycon first appeared in the 2nd century CE and the orracular snake's appearance on coins becomes regular around 200 CE. Other snake cults had existed in the Balkans and Asia Minor for centuries, notably at Pergamum. The Glycon snake had traits specific to different places -- it was depicted with the long hair and mammalian features on the Black Sea shore, with a human head in Asia and a radiate head and fishtail in continental Thracia.

Coins depicting the snake cult of Glycon were issued by several Roman Emperors. From top left clockwise Pius Antonius (138-161 CE), next Geta (209 -11 CE) murdered by his brother Caracalla (211-17 CE) lower left, and lower right, Philip II (247-49 CE), all of whom paid homage in their coins to what was believed to be a reincarnation of the Greek god Asclepius.

Sabazian cult

Walter Burkert describes in detail the historical development and rituals associated with the Sabazian snake cult thus -

'The Roman world adopted the Sabazian cult via the Kingdom of Pergamum. Despite early attempts by authorities for it to be banned—such as in 139 BCE when Praetor Cornelius Hispalus expelled worshippers from Rome—the cult exploded in popularity during the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE. The Roman version of the cult evolved into a secretive mystery religion which promised salvation and protection from evil influences. Worship shifted away from large civic temples and toward private home shrines and small communal groups. [10]

'One special form of initiation with sexual symbolism is reported in connection with the mysteries of Sabazius: a snake made of metal was made to pass beneath the initiand's clothes. This is the "God in the lap". Scholars agree that this is a form of sexual union with the god; in the myth Persephone is impregnated by Zeus in the form of a snake, and legend has associated the snakes of Dionysus' orgia with the impregnation of Olympias, mother of Alexander, by a god. But in the Sabazius ritual this is transformed through double symbolism - snake for phallus, and artifact for snake. The ritual must have remained impressive enough, but the real dread would come not so much from sexual associations as from the anticipation of touching a snake, especially since the initiand by the light of the flickering torches could hardly know for certain what was real and what was artifact'. [11]

'According to Clement of Alexandria, the Sabazian Mysteries involved the ritual of drawing a live serpent across the breast of the initiate in imitation of the 'God who penetrates the bosom'. The early Christian Father Clement of Alexandria c. 150 – c. 215 CE had been informed that the secret mysteries of Sabazius, as practiced among the Romans, involved a serpent, stating - "'God in the bosom' is a countersign of the mysteries of Sabazius to the adepts". Clement reports: "This is a snake, passed through the bosom of the initiates." [12]

Christianity

Strong evidence that symbols are flexible and evolve over time can be seen in the symbol of the snake returning to its Hebraic origins on late Roman Imperial coins. Emperor Constantine legalized Christianity in 313 CE with the Edict of Milan, and it became the official state religion in 380 AD, under Emperor Theodosius I. A Constantine coin reverse shows the symbol of the Christogram (the first two letters of the name of Christ in Greek) which Constantine had seen in a celestial vision before victorious in battle. The letters X and P superimposed upon each other on a Standard are seen piercing and defeating a snake. Ostensibly alluding to the defeat of Licinius, the symbol of the snake became associated not as before with healing and medicine but with deceit, evil and the Devil of the Judaic tradition.

In Judaism a snake "more subtle than any beast of the field" guards the tree of knowledge in the Garden of Paradise and is instrumental in the Fall of Man. In a superb example of Biblical typology (a method of interpreting the Old Testament in which God intentionally designs people, events, or institutions in order to foreshadow and correspond to greater New Testament realities). The maverick Essene spiritual teacher Yeshua alluded to Moses' ability to heal bitten Israelites. 'Just as Moses lifted up the snake in the wilderness, so the Son of Man must be lifted up, that everyone who believes may have eternal life in him.” This verse taught that the instrument of death can also become the source of salvation. [13]

The paradoxical nature of symbols is exemplified in the Gospel of Matthew, where not only is it recorded that Christ used ophic imagery ('Ye brood of Vipers') to describe venomous, deceptive people whose outward religious appearance hides a destructive, malevolent inner nature; but also urged his followers - 'Be ye gentle as doves and as wise as Serpents'. [14]

Above - Christ as a Roman soldier defeating evil represented by a snake underfoot. Ravenna 7th century CE.

Conclusion

The English physician-philosopher Sir Thomas Browne (1605-82) was a pioneering scholar of comparative religion, that is the study of shared similarities and differences between religions. Browne recognised that symbols can radically change over time and noted how before the snake acquired its reputation from the Judaic tradition, it had been a sacred symbol of 'sanity' (i.e. environmental sanitation more than mental well-being) to the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, thus-

'Surely the destructive delusion of Satan in this shape, hath much enlarged the opinion of their mischief. Which notwithstanding was not so high with the heathens, in whom the Devil had wrought a better opinion of this animal, it being sacred unto the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, and the common symbol of sanity. In the shape whereof Aesculapius the God of health appeared unto the Romans, accompanied their Ambassadors to Rome from Epidaurus; and the same did stand in the Tiberine Isle upon the Temple of Aesculapius'. [15]

The twentieth century psychologist and scholar of comparative religion, C.G. Jung recognised the relationship between the psyche and snakes -

''The lower vertebrates have from earliest times been favourite symbols of the collective psychic substratum, which is located anatomically in the sub-cortical centres, the cerebellum and the spinal cord. These organs constitute the snake.' [16]

Jung identified the paradoxical nature of snake symbolism with its psychological and spiritual attributes thus-

'The Agathodaimon (good spirit) had the form of a snake, and in Philo the snake was considered the "most spiritual" animal. On the other hand, its cold blood and inferior brain-organization do not suggest any noticeable degree of conscious development, while its unrelatedness to man makes it an alien creature that arouses his fear and yet fascinates him. Here it is an excellent symbol for the two aspects of the unconscious: its cold and ruthless instinctuality, and its Sophia quality or natural wisdom, which is embodied in the archetypes'. [17]

Walter Burkert reasons why serpent cults slowly declined -

There was no dogmatic faith in overcoming death in mysteries, as there was no devaluation of life. There was neither gospel nor revelation to immunize believers against the disasters of life. Mysteries, like votive religion, remained to some extent an experimental form of religion. As such, they at times disappoint the hopes of believers'. [18]